Imperatives and Optatives

An imperative is a verb that expresses a command. Or, more broadly, it is the mood of intention or volition. An imperative can be a command (“Read this chapter!”), a prohibition (“Don’t read this chapter!”), or a request (“Please read this chapter.”). The optative mood, however, is the mood of possibility. It is similar to the subjunctive mood (i.e., the mood of probability), but is weaker in tone in regard to certainty (“I wish you would read this entire book tonight.”). This chapter will discuss the forms and functions of the imperative mood in some detail, but because of its relatively infrequent usage in the New Testament, the optative mood will be summarized briefly.

Imperatives do not always express commands. This is clearly illustrated by the Lord’s Prayer. Greek imperative forms are in parentheses below.

Our Father in heaven,

hallowed be (ἁγιασθήτω) your name.

Your kingdom come (ἐλθέτω),

your will be done (γενηθήτω),

on earth as it is in heaven.

Give (δός) us this day our daily bread,

and forgive (ἄφες) us our debts,

as we also have forgiven our debtors.

And lead us (εἰσενέγκῃς) not into temptation,

but deliver (ῥῦσαι) us from evil. (Matt 6:9–13 ESV)

The Lord’s Prayer demonstrates that imperative forms can function as requests from an inferior to a superior. You have not learned imperative forms yet, but soon you will be able to parse the forms above. You will discover that they are all aorist imperatives. Why aorist? Are we praying for something that has already been determined in the past by God’s sovereign counsel? No. Only in the indicative does the aorist tense indicate past time. Even then, 15 percent of aorist indicative forms are not past referring.

Are all these imperatives aorist, then, because this model prayer takes a wholistic view? That is, do the aorist imperatives present the action in perfective aspect—not focusing on the beginning or ending of the action, but presenting any requested activity as a whole, encompassing both beginning and ending? That would be a good guess, but you are missing one key piece of information. As a very strong stylistic pattern in Koine Greek, imperatives in prayers (whether Christian or pagan) are almost always in the aorist tense. So, the literary form essentially dictates the tense used. We would be misguided to inquire further.

Like the subjunctive mood, the imperative mood occurs almost exclusively in the present and aorist tense-forms. There are no imperfect, future, or pluperfect forms and only two perfect occurrences (Mark 4:39, πεφίμωσο, “be still!”; Acts 15:29, ἔρρωσθε, “Farewell”). But unlike subjunctives, the present and aorist forms occur with similar frequency in the New Testament (just over 900 occurrences for each tense-form). In translation, it is often impossible to distinguish between present and aorist imperatives.

You will notice that the paradigms above are shorter than previous paradigms related to verbs. This distinction is because imperatives have no first person. (If you command yourself to do something—perhaps looking in the mirror—you would use the second person singular.) Thus, each paradigm has only four components instead of six.

When it comes to memorizing imperative paradigms, we recommend using a slightly different approach than with other types of verbs. Instead of memorizing the paradigm down the columns (singular then plural), memorize them across (2nd sg, 2nd pl, 3rd sg, 3rd pl). In studying them this way, you will notice that the pattern forms a large “Z” as you go across, then back down and over, and then across again. Because of this Z-motion, we prefer to think of this as the “Zorro method” of memorization.

The second person singular form is perhaps the most difficult to remember, so it should be given the most attention (present active: λῦε). After memorizing that form, it is best to move to the second person plural form: λύετε. The attentive student will notice that this form is identical to the present active indicative second person plural form. (The same is true for the present middle/passive: λύεσθε.) The main way of determining whether the form is an indicative or imperative is context. Also, if it is negated, you will know the mood because indicatives are negated with οὐ and imperatives are negated with μή (οὐ κρίνετε, “you are not judging”; μὴ κρίνετε, “do not judge!”). Because this form is already familiar to you, you will find it helpful to learn the last two forms in relation to the second person plural form. Thus, to learn the third person singular form, simply remove the final epsilon (ε) and replace it with an omega (ω): λύετε → λυέτω. The final step is to add -σαν to the ending of the third person plural form: λυέτω → λυέτωσαν.

Present tense-form contract verbs follow this same pattern with the normal contractions (e.g., ποιεῖ, ποιεῖτε, ποιείτω, ποιείτωσαν).

The same pattern also works for both the present middle/passive forms as well as the aorist active forms. (Note that the aorist forms have no augments.)

Present Middle/Passive: λύου → λύεσθε → λυέσθω → λυέσθωσαν

Aorist Active: λῦσον → λύσατε → λυσάτω → λυσάτωσαν

The paradigms for the aorist middle and passive imperative are given below. Because these forms are not as common, and because they have similarities with other imperative forms, it is not necessary to memorize them.

Second aorist forms have present endings plus a spelling change of the stem (e.g., λάβε, λάβετε, λαβέτω, λαβέτωσαν).

Like other types of verbs, imperatives have a wide range of uses. In this section, we will discuss three of the most common, providing examples for each.

Command

The imperative is most commonly used to express a command or exhortation. Although we earlier translated the third person imperatives as “let him/her loose” or “let them loose,” we should stress that such translations should not be viewed as statements of permission but as commands. Consequently, it is sometimes best to translate them as “he/she must loose” or “they must loose.”

• διώκετε τὴν ἀγάπην, “Pursue love” (1 Cor 14:1).

• ὅς ἔχει ὦτα ἀκούειν ἀκουέτω, “Whoever has ears to hear, let them hear” (Mark 4:9 NIV).

Prohibition

A prohibition is a negative command used to forbid an action. Like all non-indicative verbs, the imperative is negated with μή (and not οὐ). Because prohibitions in the aorist use the subjunctive mood (see 23.6), nearly all imperative prohibitions are found in the present tense-form (imperfective aspect). The present prohibition can sometimes be used to command an action to be stopped though already begun.

• μὴ ἀγαπᾶτε τὸν κόσμον, “Do not love the world” (1 John 2:15).

• μὴ γίνεσθε ὡς οἱ ὑποκριται, “Do not be as the hypocrites” (Matt 6:16).

Request

A request is a weakened form of a command that is given to a superior or someone with a higher social status. In this case, instead of a command, the imperative conveys a mere request since it would be inappropriate for someone of lower rank to give an order to someone of a higher rank. Thus, this category is fitting when a petition is made to God, asking that he hear and answer someone’s prayer. In such prayers, the aorist tense-form is almost always used. In translation, it is often appropriate to add the word “please” before the request.

• ἐλθέτω ἡ βασιλεία σου· γενηθήτω τὸ θέλημά σου, “Let your kingdom come. Let your will be done” (Matt 6:10 GW).

• εἴ τι δύνῃ, βοήθησον ἡμῖν, “If you can do anything, please help us” (Mark 9:22).

We reserved two important uses of the subjunctive for this chapter since they function as imperatives.

Hortatory Subjunctive

First, the hortatory subjunctive is used when the author includes himself in the command to the audience. That is, he urges his audience to join with him in a particular course of action. Such a command requires a first person plural form, and since imperatives have only second and third person forms, the subjunctive is used. These verbs are translated “let us + [verbal meaning].” Unlike most other subjunctives, this type is used without any introductory term (such as ἵνα, ἄν, or ἐάν). This verb is usually located at the beginning of the sentence.

• ἀγαπῶμεν ἀλλήλους, “let us love one another” (1 John 4:7).

• κρατῶμεν τῆς ὁμολογίας, “let us hold fast our confession” (Heb 4:14).

Prohibitory Subjunctive

Second, the subjunctive is also used as an imperative when (1) the command is negated and (2) the aorist tense-form is employed.

Notice that the second person aorist prohibition is not μὴ λῦσον (as one might expect) but μὴ λύσῃς. The prohibitory subjunctive should be translated as a prohibition and not as a typical subjunctive.

• καὶ μὴ εἰσενέγκῃς ἡμᾶς εἰς πειρασμόν, “And do not lead us into temptation” (Matt 6:13 NASB).

• Μὴ φονεύσῃς, Μὴ μοιχεύσῃς, Μὴ κλέψῃς, Μὴ ψευδομαρτυρήσῃς, Μὴ ἀποστερήσῃς, “Do not murder; do not commit adultery; do not steal; do not bear false witness; do not defraud” (Mark 10:19).

As mentioned above (see 21.7), the tense-form (present or aorist) of the imperative does not convey the time of the action. In fact, most imperatives are future-oriented since one cannot command something in the past. Instead, the aorist imperative (perfective aspect) portrays the action from an external perspective viewing the action as a whole, without focusing on the unfolding internal details. In contrast, the present imperative (imperfective aspect) portrays the action from an internal perspective, viewing the action as a process without focusing on the end of the action. But other factors, including lexical and contextual ones, also influence the tense-form used.

• Lexical Factors: A verbal activity’s inherent procedural nature often has a significant influence on the tense-form selected by the author. This influence is due to the overlap in function of the verb’s aspect and the inherent meaning of the verb. For example, as an imperative, the verb βάλλω occurs fourteen times as an aorist but never as a present. In Matt 4:6, the devil tells Jesus, βάλε σεαυτὸν κάτω, “throw yourself down.” Here the aorist is used because the lexical meaning of the word fits with the concept of the perfective aspect. That is, it would be difficult to portray the action as ongoing since such a thing is accomplished almost instantly. Conversely, in the New Testament ἀγαπάω occurs nineteen times as a present imperative and only once as an aorist imperative.

• Contextual Factors: Two influences are worth noting here: (1) literary context and (2) the specific command/general precept distinction. First, a text’s literary genre can influence what tense-form is chosen since certain literary styles are prone to favor certain tense-forms. For example, historical narratives favor the aorist tense-form whereas letters favor the present tense. Thus, in Paul’s epistles, he uses the present imperative three times more frequently than the aorist imperative. Additionally, in prayers where imperatives are used to make requests of God, the aorist is the strongly dominant tense-form regardless of the lexical meaning of the verb. Second, the specific command/general precept distinction recognizes the reality that when an author wants to communicate a command that is to be done on a specific occasion as a single occurrence, the aorist tense-form is used. In contrast, when the author wants to communicate a command that is a general precept (multiple occurrence), the present tense-form is used. Although there are plenty of exceptions, this pattern is a helpful guideline. Because the perfective aspect communicates an author’s portrayal of an action in its entirety, it is natural for this aspect to be used when communicating a specific command; such an action is to be done in its entirety on that particular occasion. Conversely, because the imperfective aspect communicates an author’s portrayal of an action in progress or ongoing, it is natural for this aspect to be used when communicating a general precept; such an action is to be repeated on appropriate occasions.

To summarize, a verbal activity’s inherent procedural nature directly influences the aspect because the way an action is performed affects the way it can be portrayed. The context concerning how the author envisions the readers responding also affects the aspectual choice. If an author envisions the readers only responding once to the command, then it is more natural to use the aorist form; the present form is naturally favored for commands that are to be repeatedly obeyed or carried out as the appropriate situation arises. Thus, the tense-form used with imperatives is influenced by multiple factors.

If the subjunctive mood is described as the mood of probability, the optative mood is the mood of possibility, often expressing a wish. Thus, the optative is sometimes viewed as a weaker or less assured subjunctive. During the Koine period, the optative was dying out, getting replaced by the subjunctive. As a result, there are only sixty-eight uses of the optative in the New Testament (forty-five aorists and twenty-three presents), mostly in the writings of Luke and Paul. The two most common forms are γένοιτο, “may it be” (17×), and εἴη, “may it be” (12×). In the present (and second aorist) forms, look for the marker -οι- and for the aorist forms, -σαι-. The optative can be used to express a benediction/prayer, curse, abhorrence, or a possible condition.

• Benediction/Prayer: ἔλεος ὑμῖν καὶ εἰρήνη καὶ ἀγάπη πληθυνθείη, “May mercy, peace, and love be multiplied to you” (Jude v. 2).

• Curse: μηκέτι εἰς τὸν αἰῶνα ἐκ σοῦ μηδεὶς καρπὸν φάγοι, “May no one ever eat fruit from you again!” (Mark 11:14).

• Abhorrence: (μὴ γένοιτο). Paul asks the rhetorical question, “Is the law sin?” His response is emphatic: μὴ γένοιτο, “may it never be” (Rom 7:7). This phrase could also be translated, “by no means” or “never!”

• Possible Condition: κρεῖττον γὰρ ἀγαθοποιοῦντας, εἰ θέλοι τὸ θέλημα τοῦ θεοῦ, πάσχειν ἢ κακοποιοῦντας, “For it is better to suffer for doing good, if that should be God’s will, than for doing evil” (1 Pet 3:17 ESV).

A. Paradigms: Memorize the present active and middle/passive imperatival forms as well as the aorist active forms (see section 23.3). Then write out each paradigm ten times from memory.

B. Parsing: Parse the following words.

1. λάβε

2. ποιήσατε

3. πορεύθητι

4. ζητεῖτε

5. ἄρατε

6. ἐλθέτω

7. κάλεσον

8. χαίρετε

9. κρίνατε

10. καταβάτω

C. Imperative Usage: Indicate the specific use of the following imperatives or subjunctives functioning as imperatives: Command (C), Prohibition (P), Hortatory Subjunctive (HS), Prohibitory Subjunctive (PS), or Optative (O).

D. Translation: Translate the following sentences, indicating the use of the imperatives.

1. ἀγαπᾶτε τοὺς ἐχθροὺς (enemies) ὑμῶν καὶ προσεύχεσθε ὑπὲρ τῶν διωκόντων ὑμᾶς (Matt 5:44).

2. ἔγειρε ἆρον τὸν κράβαττόν (mat) σου καὶ ὕπαγε εἰς τὸν οἶκόν σου (Mark 2:11).

3. οἱ δὲ λοιποὶ ἔλεγον, … ἴδωμεν εἰ ἔρχεται Ἠλίας σώσων αὐτόν (Matt 27:49).

4. προσκυνησάτωσαν αὐτῷ πάντες ἄγγελοι θεοῦ (Heb 1:6).

5. Ἀγαπητοί, μὴ παντὶ πνεύματι πιστεύετε ἀλλὰ δοκιμάζετε (test!) τὰ πνεύματα (1 John 4:1).

6. ἄλλους ἔσωσεν, σωσάτω ἑαυτόν (Luke 23:35).

7. βαπτισθήτω ἕκαστος ὑμῶν ἐπὶ τῷ ὀνόματι Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ (Acts 2:38)

8. μὴ εἴπῃς ἐν τῇ καρδίᾳ σου, Τίς ἀναβήσεται εἰς τὸν οὐρανόν; (Rom 10:6).

9. ὑμεῖς λογίζεσθε ἑαυτοὺς εἶναι νεκροὺς τῇ ἁμαρτίᾳ (Rom 6:11).

10. πάτερ ἅγιε, τήρησον αὐτοὺς ἐν τῷ ὀνόματί σου (John 17:11).

11. πᾶς λόγος σαπρὸς (rotten) ἐκ τοῦ στόματος ὑμῶν μὴ ἐκπορευέσθω (Eph 4:29).

12. εἶπεν δὲ Μαριάμ, Ἰδοὺ ἡ δούλη κυρίου· γένοιτό μοι κατὰ τὸ ῥῆμά σου (Luke 1:38).

13. εἰ νεκροὶ οὐκ ἐγείρονται, φάγωμεν καὶ πίωμεν αὔριον (tomorrow) γὰρ ἀποθνῄσκομεν (1 Cor 15:32).

14. ἢ οὐκ οἴδατε ὅτι ἄδικοι (unrighteous) θεοῦ βασιλείαν οὐ κληρονομήσουσιν (inherit); μὴ πλανᾶσθε (deceive) · (1 Cor 6:9).

15. αὐτὸς δὲ ὁ κύριος ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦς Χριστὸς καὶ [ὁ] θεὸς ὁ πατὴρ ἡμῶν … παρακαλέσαι ὑμῶν τὰς καρδίας καὶ στηρίξαι (establish, optative mood) ἐν παντὶ ἔργῳ καὶ λόγῳ ἀγαθῷ (2 Thess 2:16–17).

E. Translation: Translate the following sentences into Greek. The expected aspect is given for each imperative.

1. Behold, sit (imperfective aspect, middle, sg) before the Lord in fear.

2. Greet (perfective aspect, pl) those in prison and those having need.

3. All generations, dwell (imperfective aspect, pl) in peace.

4. Work (imperfective aspect, pl) as for the Lord.

5. Know (imperfective aspect, pl) me in the year of tribulation and judgment.