Adjectives and Adverbs

This chapter will cover adjectives and will also briefly discuss adverbs. An adjective describes or qualifies a noun (e.g., the tall man; the kind woman). That is, it distinguishes a noun (or pronoun) from other nouns by providing more information about it. In contrast, an adverb modifies a verb (e.g., the tall man quickly ate his meal; the kind woman graciously helped her friend).

God gives to his people in many ways: generously, kindly, lovingly, mercifully. These words that end in -ly are all adverbs—words that further nuance some verbal action. The most common ending for an adverb in English is -ly. The most common ending for an adverb in Greek is -ως.

James 1:5 is a well-known text that employs an adverb to qualify further the activity further of God’s giving:

But if any of you lacks wisdom, let him ask of God, who gives to all generously (ἁπλῶς) and without reproach, and it will be given to him. (NASB)

Here God is described as the One “who gives to all generously and without reproach.” The Greek word translated “generously” is ἁπλῶς. Though generosity is within the broad semantic range of ἁπλῶς, it more commonly means “unwaveringly” or “without hesitation.” In weighing both the linguistic evidence and literary context, most scholarly commentaries on James recognize that “unwaveringly” is a better translation of ἁπλῶς here. Nevertheless, most modern English Bible translations continue to follow the KJV tradition (i.e., “liberally” or “generously”). If we read the verse in context, we see James is contrasting God with the fickle human of Jas 1:5–8. Ponder the joy and stability of knowing that we have a God who gives without hesitation, without wavering, without fickleness.

First and Second Declension Adjectives

Because an adjective is grammatically linked to the noun it modifies, it must agree with the gender, case, and number of that noun. In fact, the adjective does not have any gender of its own but takes the gender of the noun it describes; thus, all three genders are given in the vocabulary lists.

The first and second declension adjective paradigm above does not need to be memorized for the simple reason that these forms should already be known. That is, the masculine endings are identical to the second declension masculine noun endings; the feminine endings are identical to the first declension (eta pattern) feminine noun endings; and the neuter endings are identical to the second declension neuter noun endings (see chaps. 2 and 3).

If the stem of the adjective ends with an epsilon (ε), iota (ι), or rho (ρ), the adjective will follow the alpha (α) pattern:

The plural forms are not provided since they are identical to the eta (η) pattern. The spelling of the adjective itself determines whether it will use the alpha or eta pattern. Thus, the adjective may have a different pattern than the noun it modifies (ἡ ἁγὶα ἐντολή, “the holy command”).

Some adjectives differ slightly from the paradigm of ἀγαθός. Here are the masculine singular forms for μέγας and πολύς:

Notice that the forms are similar except that the final vowel differs. The plural forms are not given since their endings are identical to ἀγαθός.

Third Declension Adjectives

The paradigm for the adjective πᾶς also does not need to be memorized since it is regular in most of its forms except in two instances: (1) the feminine singular alternates between the alpha (α) and eta (η) patterns: πᾶσα, πάσης, πάσῃ, πᾶσαν and (2) the neuter nominative/accusative singular form is πᾶν (compare πνεῦμα).

Notice that the masculine and neuter genitive forms contain the full stem (παντ-). When the sigma (ς) is added to the masculine nominative singular form, the -ντ drop out (παντ + ς = παντς → πᾶς). Also, the neuter nominative (and accusative) form has no ending added. Consequently, the tau (τ) drops out because it cannot stand as the last letter of a word (παντ + - = παντ → πᾶν). Such morphological rules need not be memorized. Instead, focus on recognition, especially paying attention to context as a key assistant in identifying the form of a word and then translating it properly.

Adjectives are used in a variety of ways: (1) attributively, (2) substantivally, or (3) predicatively.

Attributive Use

When the adjective functions adjectivally, it is in the attributive position. That means that the article (when present) occurs directly in front of the adjective. The modified noun may or may not have the article. The adjective adds information about a noun, specifying an attribute or characteristic of the noun. The adjective thus modifies an expressed noun and agrees with it in gender, case, and number.

Notice there are two ways to communicate the same idea in English. The first example above is the same as the typical English word order (article-adjective-noun). The article immediately prior to λόγος in the example is in brackets because it may or may not be present. The second example, very common in Greek, follows a different order (article-noun-article-adjective). In both examples, the article directly precedes the adjective.

If an attributive adjective is modifying an indefinite, anarthrous noun, neither noun nor adjective will have the article in Greek:

Substantival Use

When the adjective functions substantivally, there is no expressed noun that it modifies. The adjective itself functions like a noun. To render it understandably in English, a translator must often supply an implied word like “man,” “woman,” or “things,” depending on the gender, case, and number of the adjectives. The article (when present) occurs directly in front of the adjective.

The case of the substantive adjective is determined by its function in the sentence, and the gender of the substantive adjective is determined by the person or item referenced. If it refers to a male or to something grammatically masculine, then it will be masculine. Likewise, if it refers to a female or to something grammatically feminine, then it will be feminine. And if it refers to something grammatically neuter, it will be neuter.

Predicate Use

When an adjective asserts something about a nominative subject with a “to be” verb present or implied between the subject and adjective, that adjective is called a predicate adjective. A predicate adjective “predicates” (asserts or claims) something about the subject. The predicate adjective is said to be in the predicate position, which means that there is no article directly in front of the adjective. There is usually an article in front of the nominative subject.

Notice that the verb “is” was supplied in the English translation. Although sometimes a form of the verb εἰμί is present, often it is simply implied. In such cases, it is necessary to supply the verb in translation. In the examples above, the periods let you know that they are complete sentences and that the “to be” verb must be provided in an English translation.

If there is no article before the noun or adjective, context will determine whether the adjective is functioning adjectivally or if it is used as a predicate adjective. For example, ἀγαθός λόγος and λόγος ἀγαθός can mean either “a good word” or “a word [is] good.” Context will clarify whether a form of “to be” is implied (predicate use) or not (attributive use). For example,

The presence of a period (as in the first example) or a few additional words (as in the second) clarify whether ἀγαθός is functioning predicatively or attributively. If the adjective is functioning predicatively, you will need to provide some form of the verb “to be” in translation (e.g., “is,” “was,” “were,” etc.). Only the context will clarify the person, number, and time of the implied verb.

Uses of Πᾶς

Depending on its position in relation to the noun it modifies, πᾶς can be used in slightly different ways. Although the following represent patterns of usage, this is only a general guideline and should not be followed literalistically.

Predicate Position: “all”

Attributive Position: “whole”

Anarthrous (no article): “every”

Substantive (no expressed noun): “all”

Adjectives have various degrees: positive (“strong”), comparative (“stronger”), and superlative (“strongest”). The positive adjective is used when an author is merely stating something and is not comparing two or more things (“The strong lion has no fear”). The comparative adjective is used when an author wants to compare two things (“The lion is stronger than the zebra”). Finally, the superlative wadjective is used when an author wants to compare three or more things (“Between the lion, the zebra, and the giraffe, the lion is the strongest”). Here are some other examples in English:

Note that in English, the comparative is formed by adding -er and the superlative by adding -est.

Comparative Degree

There are two ways of forming the comparative degree. Depending on the adjective employed for comparison, it will decline in one of two ways. The first method of forming a comparative adjective employs third declension endings. For example, μείζων (“greater”) is the comparative form of the adjective μέγας (“great”). Here is the full paradigm:

The adjectives μείζων and πλείων (“more”; the comparative of πολύς, “much”) account for nearly half of the comparative adjectives in the New Testament. Two other forms are χείρων (“worse”; the comparative of κακός, “bad”) and κρείσσον or κρείττων (“better”; the comparative of ἀγαθός/καλός, “good”).

The second method of forming a comparative adjective is by adding -τερος, -τερα, or -τερον to the positive adjective. Except for the few common -ων comparatives discussed above, you should expect most other adjectives to form their comparative forms with -τερος, -τερα, or -τερον. Note that these endings contain an “er” sound (-τερος), which will help you remember that they convey a comparative meaning (e.g., smarter).

Not only are there two ways to form a comparative adjective, but there are also two ways of signaling a comparison in Greek. That is, there are two ways to communicate the word “than.” The first is the use of the term ἤ (“than”). For example, μείζων ἐστὶν ὁ ἐν ὑμῖν ἢ ὁ ἐν τῷ κόσμῳ, “the one who is in you is greater than the one who is in the world” (1 John 4:4). The other is the more common method and involves the use of the genitive case (known as a “genitive of comparison”). For example, ὁ πατὴρ μείζων μού ἐστιν “the Father is greater than I” (John 14:28). In this instance, the genitive case conveys the sense of “than” (not the typical “of”).

Superlative Degree

A Greek adjective will form its superlative in one of two ways. First, for some adjectives, -ιστος is added to the end of a positive adjective. Note that this ending contains almost the same sound as the English superlative ending (cf. -ιστος, smartest).

Secondly, some adjectives will form their superlatives by adding -τατος, -τατη, or -τατον to the positive adjective.

Comparative and positive forms are sometimes used in place of superlative forms (which were dying out in the Koine period). For example, in 1 Cor 13:13, Paul states, “So now faith, hope, and love abide, these three; but the greatest (μείζων) of these is love” (ESV). Although three concepts are being compared, calling for a superlative, the comparative adjective μείζων is used.

Elative

The elative adjective is where a superlative (or sometimes a comparative) adjective is used to convey the idea of “very” or “exceedingly” instead of “most.” For example, in Mark 4:1 we read, “a very large (πλεῖστος) crowd gathered around him.” Although the superlative form is used (πλεῖστος, “largest”), in context it is clear that the author is not intending a superlative nuance (the largest crowd in comparison to others); rather, he is expressing the elative sense (a very large crowd). Context clarifies whether a comparative, superlative, or elative sense is intended.

Whereas adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs (or other parts of speech). And unlike adjectives, adverbs do not decline. As we noted at the outset of this chapter, the most common ending found on Greek adverbs is -ως. Many adverbs are formed by taking the genitive plural form (e.g., καλῶν from καλός) and substituting a sigma (ς) in place of the nu (ν) → καλῶς. This ending is similar to the -ly ending in English (e.g., quick → quickly).

Occasionally an accusative adjective will function adverbially; this is known as an “adverbial accusative.” For example, in 1 Cor 16:19, Paul writes, “Aquila and Priscilla greet you warmly (πολλά) in the Lord” (NIV). Here the accusative adjective πολλά (from πολύς, “much”) is used adverbially, modifying the verb “greet.”

A. Adjective Case: Circle the words of the designated cases.

B. Adjective Use: Indicate whether the following adjectives are used Attributively (A), Substantivally (S), or Predicatively (P).

C. Adjective Degrees: Circle the words of the designated degrees.

D. Translation: Translate the following sentences.

1. ὁ ἀγαθὸς ἄνθρωπος ἐκ τοῦ ἀγαθοῦ θησαυροῦ (treasure) ἐκβάλλει ἀγαθά, καὶ ὁ πονηρὸς ἄνθρωπος ἐκ τοῦ πονηροῦ θησαυροῦ ἐκβάλλει πονηρά (Matt 12:35).

2. τὸ πνεῦμα τὸ ἅγιον, ὃ πέμψει ὁ πατὴρ ἐν τῷ ὀνόματί μου, ἐκεῖνος (that one) ὑμᾶς διδάξει πάντα (John 14:26).

3. ὁ γὰρ ναὸς τοῦ θεοῦ ἅγιός ἐστιν, οἵτινές ἐστε ὑμεῖς (1 Cor 3:17).

4. ἠκολούθει δὲ τῷ Ἰησοῦ Σίμων Πέτρος καὶ ἄλλος μαθητής (John 18:15).

5. ἢ πνεῦμα ἕτερον λαμβάνετε ὃ οὐκ ἐλάβετε, ἢ εὐαγγέλιον ἕτερον ὃ οὐκ ἐδέξασθε (δέχομαι, I receive) (2 Cor 11:4).

6. καλὸς ἔσῃ διάκονος (servant) Χριστοῦ Ἰησοῦ (1 Tim 4:6).

7. ἔσται μέγας καὶ υἱὸς ὑψίστου (most high) κληθήσεται (Luke 1:32).

8. ἀμὴν (truly) ἀμὴν λέγω ὑμῖν ὅτι ἔρχεται ὥρα καὶ νῦν ἐστιν ὅτε (when) οἱ νεκροὶ ἀκούσουσιν τῆς φωνῆς τοῦ υἱοῦ τοῦ θεοῦ (John 5:25).

9. εἰ γὰρ νεκροὶ οὐκ ἐγείρονται, οὐδὲ (neither) Χριστὸς ἐγήγερται (1 Cor 15:16).

10. καὶ εἶδον, καὶ ἤκουσα φωνὴν ἀγγέλων πολλῶν (Rev 5:11).

11. νόμος ἅγιος καὶ ἡ ἐντολὴ ἁγία καὶ δικαία καὶ ἀγαθή (Rom 7:12).

12. ἀμὴν ἀμὴν λέγω ὑμῖν, οὐκ ἔστιν δοῦλος μείζων τοῦ κυρίου αὐτοῦ (John 13:16).

13. τὸ μωρὸν (foolishness) τοῦ θεοῦ σοφώτερον (σόφος, wise) τῶν ἀνθρώπων ἐστὶν καὶ τὸ ἀσθενὲς (weakness) τοῦ θεοῦ ἰσχυρότερον (ἰσχυρός, strong) τῶν ἀνθρώπων (1 Cor 1:25).

14. ὁ δὲ μικρότερος (μικρός, small, less) ἐν τῇ βασιλείᾳ τῶν οὐρανῶν μείζων αὐτοῦ ἐστιν (Matt 11:11).

15. ἐγὼ γάρ εἰμι ὁ ἐλάχιστος (superlative of μικρός) τῶν ἀποστόλων (1 Cor 15:9).

E. Translation: Translate the following sentences into Greek.

1. Again I say, the Lord is holy, just, and good.

2. The wicked one is not greater than the faithful One.

3. A very large crowd heard every word. (Hint: Look within the chapter for a superlative form that has the elative sense, “very large.”)

4. Now the dead in Christ will be raised.

5. Another slave will announce a different place.